America’s Rise to Global Power
One of America’s first conflicts in the Pacific was with Hawaii, which was governed by Queen Liliokalani. American investors were attracted to the sugarcane industry. A treaty gave Hawaiian sugar duty-free import into America until the McKinley tariff of 1890. The sugar planters revolted and the United States was en-route to annex Hawaii until President Cleveland withdrew the offer. America’s Pacific influence grew as the U.S. bought Alaska from Russia and established an informal protectorate in the Samoan islands.
America’s expansion gained momentum as its industrial economy produced a surplus of goods. As European nations competed over control of Asia and Africa, America became concerned over these markets being closed to its surplus. To increase its overseas presence, America began a major program of expanding its navy. Battleships were built and many bases were established in strategic locations.
The first chance the United States had to use this new naval power was in the Cuban conflict. Americans felt sympathy for Cubans, who desired independence from Spain. Meanwhile, President Cleveland was worried about a Cuban civil war would disrupt trade. Tempers rose between Spain and the U.S. and in February of 1897, an American battle cruiser sank in Havana Harbor. Spain did not take America’s demands seriously and a year later declared war.
The newly improved American navy swiftly defeated the Spanish fleet and took the Philippine islands. However, the most important battle for Cuba took place near Santiago. Spain eventually gave in to America’s demands and officially ceded Puerto Rico and Guam to the United States.
The American Empire grew steadily and in July 1898, Hawaii was annexed. Furthermore, Spain ceded the Philippines to the United States in return for twenty million dollars. However, not everyone was in support of this expansion. While American troops occupied the Philippines, the natives began attacking using guerrilla tactics. The United States used fighting techniques they lad learned from the Spanish only a year earlier and the fighting ended in 1902. In the Jones Act of 1916, America stated that the Philippines would eventually be granted independence, but no date was set so that America could prepare the Filipinos for their new self-government.
In 1901, Theodore Roosevelt became president when McKinley was assassinated. He was very worldly, having traveled throughout the world and studying foreign affairs, and felt that America was to be the policeman of the world. To prevent a world war between the great powers, it was America’s job to maintain a balance of power. Each of the great European countries responded differently. As England became increasingly isolated from the other European powers, it turned to America for friendship. In an act of this new friendship, Britain agreed to the Hay-Pauncefote Agreement, ending British involvement in the Panama canal. Furthermore, Britain settled the last border disputes between America and Canada in America’s favor.
The Spanish-American war demonstrated that America was in need of a strategic asset. Although Britain had abandoned the Panama Canal, Roosevelt had a hard time carrying out his plans. The Columbian legislature voted against his offer to lease the land, so he gave secret support to a revolution in Panama. As a result, he obtained a perpetually renewable lease on the land. The canal was finished in 1914 and the strategic need was fulfilled.
While still in control of Cuba, the United States made improvements such as a swamp clearing program that alleviated yellow fever. In 1902, America withdrew and recognized Cuba as an independent nation. However, a condition of the independence was the Platt Amendment, which gave America the right to intervene in Cuban affairs, specifically if Cuba’s independence was jeopardized. In addition, a policy called the Roosevelt corollary to the Monroe Doctrine gave America the right to interfere in Latin America and Caribbean affairs.
Meanwhile, to prevent the dominant European countries from blocking America out of the Chinese market, U.S. Secretary of State John Hay sent them all an Open Door Note to establish a policy of open trade. China was a growing new market, but Japan was becoming a rival to America. However, in the “Gentlemen’s Agreement,” Japan agreed to limit immigration to America.
America also interfered in Mexican affairs when a series of three dictators came in and out of power. The final Mexican dictator, Victoriano Huerta, was overthrown by a combination of both American and Mexican troops, but relations between the two eventually turned sour. The Americans finally withdrew in 1917 and recognized the new Mexican government.
Myers, William Starr and Walter H. Newton, eds. The Hoover Administration; a documented narrative. Roaring Twenties by Stuart A. Kallen
