Ramesses II: The Greatest of Pharaohs
Ramesses II, born about 1304 B.C., lived a long life as one of the greatest pharaohs, husband to beautiful women, and father to approximately 100 children. He was a ruler of successful military campaigns and expansions, observance of religious traditions, and public reforms, along with sponsorship of the arts and architecture. His fame was unparalleled at his time, and he is still regarded as one of the most well known pharaohs today.
Following the imperial efforts started a century earlier, Ramesses II sought to emulate and surpass the success of the reigns of Thutmose III and Amenhotep III. These two pharaohs were part of the 18th Dynasty, ruling from 1479-1425 B.C. and 1390-1352 B.C. respectively. This dynasty was the first in the New Kingdom, and included Amenhotep’s heretical son, the pharaoh Akhenaten. Akhenaten tried to change the religion of Egypt to include worship of Aten, the solar disk. His reign was marked by an increased isolation from international political contests and military alliances. After Akhenaten, questions of succession plagued Egypt, and after the death of Tutankhamun, various military generals took power, the last of which was Horemheb, who was the last pharaoh of the 18th Dynasty.
The next dynasty, obviously named the 19th Dynasty, began with Ramesses I, grandfather of Ramesses II. As the first pharaoh of this dynasty, Ramesses II began as a general and vizier under Horemheb and received many distinguished titles. He reigned only a year and four months, but the dynasty continued on with his son, Seti, father of Ramesses II.
Egypt enjoyed an advantageous geographical position at the junction of Europe, Subsaharan Africa, and western Asia. With the Mediterranean and the Red Seas, and the Nile River, Egypt had many possible trade routes to transport goods, peoples, and ideas. Egyptian ties between Nubia and Syria-Palestine existed for ages, and Egypt took to stabilizing Africa and Asia by spreading its own culture along with assimilating traditions from other cultures. Fundamental continuity was a prominent feature of Egypt over the course of nearly three millennia, regardless of the various military and political troubles. Egypt under Ramesses II extended from Syria to Sudan, with his capital, Piramesse, near the eastern Nile Delta.
Ramesses II was known for building a large number of temples throughout Upper and Lower Egypt. Ramesses II, as all pharaohs, was the son of Re, the sun god and creator. His role of “nurturing father of his people” was similar to Osiris, god of death and afterlife. Ramesses II was blessed with red hair, aligning him with the storm god, Set. As a god-king, Ramesses was considered to know all and control all, including normal and extraordinary events. While Egyptian law allowed worship of all gods, three gods were considered national: Amun, Re, and Ptah. Amun was the god of Thebes in Upper Egypt and a dynastic god. Re, the sun god and creator, was god of Heliopolis. Ptah was a god-craftsman and also a creator, and god of Memphis. Some of the other gods were Hathor, a fertility goddess, Horus, a falcon-god who governed kingship, Isis, his wife, Osiris, god of death and afterlife, Khnum, a ram who made humans from clay. Set was also a god worshipped by Ramesses II and his father, Seti I (as evidenced by his name). Set was the god of confusion, the battle against evil, and violence necessary to create or restore order. As Seti and then Ramesses reinstituted worship of Set, they also instituted a policy of expansion of Egypt.
Narmer was the first Egyptian pharaoh recorded in history. He founded the state in 3100 B.C. and created a set of laws contained in three reliefs. These reliefs are called the Palette of Narmer, the Macehead of King Scorpion, and the Macehead of Narmer. These documents explained the coexistence of gods and humans, the organization of agriculture, the regulation of animal breeding, and the rules of the kingdom. The Maceheads also portray the pharaoh wearing a White Crown and a Red Crown, the first of which represents power, the latter a symbol of governance.
After Ahmose ended the foreign Hyksos rule in Egypt, founding the 18th dynasty, the people of Egypt found themselves with the desire to make an empire. Egypt was extended from Asia to Nubia, most of expansion being done by the master Thutmose III. Although his wars exacted a great cost from Egypt, the increased land allowed for a profitable confederated political system, thereby adding to Egypt’s wealth several times over.
Seti I ruled for less than fifteen years, but in that time he set an example for his son to follow. He dedicated several wondrous monuments to the gods where ancient pharaohs were also worshipped. Building a palace near a temple of Set he had previously restored, Seti laid the foundations of the new capital of Ramesses II, Piramesse. Seti ordered several architectural projects near Thebes and developed gold mines in and around Nubia. He also began a gold-based monetary policy, which was continued in the rule of Ramesses II. Following the efforts of reconquest, Seti advanced north to Lebanon where he defeated the Hittites, the Amorites, and the Tehenu. Seti also set forth to pacify Nubia to regain water sources that led to Irem, west of the Nile.
Ramesses II was crowned at about age 25, hoping to continue the efforts of his father to bring Egypt to great fame and wealth. Imitating Amenhotep’s fivefold titulary, Ramesses announced his government policy through his own titulary. The five names are: Horus, the mighty bull, beloved of Maat; He of the Two Ladies, protector of Egypt, conqueror of foreign lands; Horus of Gold, rich in years, great in victories; King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Usermaatre Setepenre, Strong is the maat of Re, or Re is the strength of Maat; Son of Re, Ramesses-Meryamun, “Born of Re, beloved of Amun.” Generally speaking, these five names refer to the two aspects of power and government: heka, the means of bringing maat (organizational and ritual duties and the building of monuments), and sekhem, relating to wards and the administration of Egypt, intending to drive off isfet.
Of the two great royal wives of Ramesses II, Nefertari and Isetnofret, several legitimate heirs were born. Ramesses II was also married to two Hittite princesses and four of his daughters. Many of his some 100 children enjoyed success in his administration, becoming wealthy and titled. The thirteenth son, Merenptah, was the son who succeeded Ramesses II, at the age of 60.
The most important duty of the pharaoh was to keep communication with the gods open, for the reason that his rule was given by the gods. The government was full of heka and maat, heka being the creative force that made the world, and maat being truth, justice, and harmony. To keep his government successful, the pharaoh had to perform rituals to insure maat in Egypt. He would make offerings to a statuette of the goddess Maat as well as other gods. Also important were the rites of the New Year’s ceremony and the jubilees, also called sed festivals. Jubilees were traditionally held every thirty years, though they became more frequent after Ramesses II, when his first sed festival was accompanied by an extremely beneficial flooding of the Nile, filling the valley with an abundant layer of fresh soil.
In the daily rituals, statues of the gods were “washed, anointed, perfumed, dressed, and offered food and water.” Their food and water was then given to the high priests to eat and drink. In all provinces of Egypt, several festivals marked the calendar during which various animals were sacrificed and offerings were made to the gods. After the ceremonies, the goods were distributed among the crowds. It was during this time that workers received their monthly salaries and food rations. Thus the king ensured the protection of the people through his communication with the gods and the people would offer their obedience, homage, and labor. It was so that when the royal generosity benefited temples and political institutions, it also benefited all the population, down to the lowest worker. During the reign of Ramesses, Egypt flourished and soldiers and artisans were well paid.
During the first years of Ramesses’s reign, Egypt was a flurry of construction of various monuments and temples. However, war came to him on two occasions. In the second year of his rule, a group of attackers called the Sea People settled on the islands of the Nile Delta and Ramesses was forced to drive them off. Once defeated, the Sea People were drafted into Egypt’s army and proved themselves to be quite brave. In the fourth year of his rule, the king of Amurru in Syria shifted his allegiance from the Hittites to the Egyptians. The Hittite king, Muwatallis, disputed this and Ramesses had to send his army north to protect Amurru. The next year Muwatallis challenged Ramesses again, and the fight culminated in a great battle near Qadesh, in Syria. The battle of Qadesh is pictured on the walls of the temples at Abydos, Karnak, Abu Simbel, and the Ramesseum, and recounted in two manuscripts. The actual battle was indecisive, but Ramesses claimed quite a feat of arms. He stood before the Hittite army either by himself, or with only his personal guard. Paintings depict him as the true brave son of Amun.
The battle of Qadesh is recorded as such: during the 5th year of his rule, Ramesses left Piramesse and traveled with his army north to meet and defeat the Hittites who were heading towards Egypt. As he approached Qadesh, he met two members of a tribe under Hittite rule who swore allegiance to Ramesses and told him that the Hittite army was still far north. However, they were spies sent by Muwatallis and the pharaoh fell for the ploy. Ramesses left with one division to make camp northwest of Qadesh. Meanwhile, after the spies had been beaten, they revealed the truth that the Hittite army was hiding behind the city. Despite not having been warned in time, Ramesses managed to hold off the Hittite army on his own until help could arrive. The next morning, as the Egyptian army prepared to attack the army again, the Hittite king called for a truce. Unfortunately, once Ramesses left, Muwatallis retook Amurru.
The Egyptians and Hittites stayed conflicted for another 15 years, after which Muwatallis’s successor, Hattusilis III called for a permanent alliance between the two states. The alliance was successful and Ramesses cemented it by marrying two of the king’s daughters. This was perhaps the first international treaty.
Ramesses proved himself to be a great and able leader, unrivaled even after his death. Although the 19th Dynasty declined not long after his death, Ramesses fame as one of the greatest pharaohs overshadowed foreign lands at the time, and still continues on, even to this day.
